How Seleucus I founded one of the most powerful empires: The rise and fall of the Seleucids

2024 Author: Richard Flannagan | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-15 23:55

The Seleucid Empire was one of the largest Hellenistic states, formed after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. The Seleucids ruled a vast empire that stretched from the Aegean to Bactria. The powerful empire remained the dominant force for nearly three centuries, until it was eventually swallowed up by a new superpower, Rome.

1. Formation of an empire

Alexander III, also known as Alexander the Great, died in 323 BC at the age of thirty-two. By the time of his death, he left behind a vast empire, the largest the world has ever seen. She brought with her lands from Greece up to the Indus River. The moment of Alexander's death marked the transition to a new, newly born Hellenistic world.

Almost instantly, a series of wars broke out, the so-called Diadochi (Successor) Wars. Towards the end of these incredibly bloody and merciless battles for survival, three great new kingdoms have emerged, each with its own ruling dynasty. These were the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Antigonids in Macedonia, and the Seleucids in Asia. The Seleucid Empire, ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, was nothing more than a vast and diverse kingdom ruled by a Macedonian elite claiming to be the successors of Alexander the Great.

2. Seleucus I - founder of the empire

The father of the Seleucid dynasty was Seleucus I. Seleucus served alongside Alexander during his campaign against the Achaemenid empire. After the death of Alexander, Babylon, a historical and prestigious part of the empire with little military power, was given to Seleucus.

Seleucus left Babylon in 316 BC. e., when Antigonus, the most powerful of the Diadochi, attacked the city. Seleucus then became admiral under Ptolemy in the ensuing war against Antigonos and his son Demetrios in the Aegean Sea. After several major military victories, Seleucus managed to reclaim Babylon in 312 BC. It is believed that it was on this day that the Seleucid Empire was born.

Back in Babylon, Seleucus fought Antigonus' army for three bloody years from 311 to 309 BC. The end of this war was a victory for Seleucus, who retained his lands in Mesopotamia and the potential for eastward expansion. He consolidated his rule over the eastern half of the empire as far as India. There he fought with the Mauryan empire, defending his eastern border at the Indus River, receiving five hundred war elephants to help as part of a peace treaty with the Indian king Chandragupta.

After the death of Antigonos at Ipsos (301 BC), the kingdom of the Seleucids reached Syria. In 281 BC, Seleucus I Nicator (Victorious) was about seventy-seven years old when he prepared to invade Macedonia and return home after a long military life. As soon as he entered Thrace, one step away from Macedonia, he was killed by Ptolemy Keraunos, the son of Ptolemy.

3. Rise of the empire

The Seleucid Empire was the largest of all the other Hellenistic kingdoms. With the technology and resources of the day, such an empire was almost impossible to keep. The decay was slow, but started almost immediately. The first blow came from the east. Bactria became independent in about half of the 2nd century, when the Parthians conquered the Persian lands. From this moment on, the Seleucids will forget about the idea of returning any land that lies beyond Iran.

Another big blow came when Seleucus II (246-226 BC) waged a civil war against his brother Antiochus Hierax, commander of Sardis. The latter turned to the Gauls for help, who invaded Asia Minor and caused devastation. Attalus I, who was at the head of Pergamum, took advantage of the situation and conquered part of Asia Minor from the Seleucid empire. Since then, the Attalids began to expand their influence, relying on the newly emerging power of Rome, slowly getting rid of the Seleucids. As a result, it is fair to say that the Seleucids reached their peak of power during the reign of their founding father, Seleucus I.

4. Greco-Macedonian minority

The Seleucids ruled over Jews, Persians, Assyrians, Armenians, and many other indigenous peoples from Asia Minor to Bactria. However, the king and his royal court consisted almost exclusively of Greeks and Macedonians, as did the army. The administrative centers of the empire were also occupied by people speaking the Greek language. In fact, the natives of the empire were excluded from power if they were not involved in local duties. One interesting fact is that Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, was one of the few exceptions to this rule. Hannibal served as an advisor to Antiochus III during the war against Rome when he was expelled from his country.

Therefore, we are talking about an empire of two worlds: the world of the elite of the Greco-Macedonian ruling class and the world of the local people who were ruled. The elitism of the ruling class was also expressed in its desire to avoid mixed marriages. Alexander the Great believed in the creation of a Macedonian-Persian ruling class, which would be created through intermarriage of Macedonians with Persians. With the exception of Seleucus I, who married a Bactrian under the command of Alexander, no other member of the dynasty married someone who did not speak their native language.

5. New cities

The capital of the empire was Antioch on Orontes in northern Syria. However, the Seleucids were dependent on Seleucia on the Tigris and Sardis, which were complementary military and administrative centers of the imperial power. Thus, in reality, the Seleucid empire was a state with many additional capitals.

Seleucus I, founder of the empire, founded a number of cities following the example of Alexander. Some were also the new capitals of Antioch on Orontes and Seleucia on Tigris. These new cities attracted settlers from Greece and Macedonia and functioned as centers that exported Hellenic culture throughout the empire.

The choice to found a new capital and ignore Babylon was not accidental. The Seleucid Empire was an empire of intense cultural contradictions, where a Greco-Macedonian exclusive elite ruled over a large, diverse population.

The Seleucids founded many new cities, both Greek and Macedonian settlers were invited there. The large influx of immigrants can be compared to the migration of Europeans to America. The new cities became islands of Greek citizens in foreign lands, stretching all the way to India. Also, very often the Seleucids changed the name of an already existing city and proclaimed it a new one under a Greek name (for example, Jerusalem was called Antioch).

6. Hellenistic culture

The period following Alexander's death to the rise of Rome is known as the Hellenistic era. It was a period of incredible cultural change. During this time, the so-called Hellenistic culture spread and transformed the entire world known to us.

At that time, a particular Greek dialect was popularized to the point that it became the lingua franca. Trade, education and diplomacy were carried out mainly in this Greek dialect, which became known as Koine.

Hellenic customs and institutions were also widespread. This export of Greek culture was facilitated by new cities founded throughout the Seleucid empire and old cities that were completely Hellenized. Antioch became a center openly competing with Alexandria for patronage of the arts and literature, while Seleucia replaced Babylonian influence and led to the depopulation of the latter.

Grammar schools, theaters, and Greek-style architecture became widespread, as did Greek art in all its forms. New syncretized gods emerged as Greco-Macedonian settlers tried to make sense of local cults, and the ideas of Greek philosophers were now available throughout Asia. The Bactrian kingdom, which left the Seleucid empire, served as a beacon for the spread of Hellenistic ideas and art in India, influencing the Buddhist art of that time.

Nevertheless, one should not think that the natives of the empire were completely Hellenized. Most of the local residents continued to live as before. The only change was that they were now ruled by a Hellenic minority. Nevertheless, the spread of Hellenistic culture deep into the empire had significant consequences that continued over the centuries.

7. Antiochus the Great

Few people have had the honor to be called "Great" in history. One of them was Antiochus III (242-187 BC). The Seleucid Empire reached its largest size during the reign of its founder, Seleucus I. After that moment, disintegration began when the Parthians began to restore what was previously the Persian Empire, Bactria became independent, and the Attalids began expansion against their former rulers, the Seleucids. However, the empire did not continually decline. There were times when the reign of the Seleucids was strengthened for a while. This was during the military campaigns of Antiochus III.

When Antiochus ascended the throne, he immediately reorganized his army and tried to improve the governance of the state. After successfully resisting some rebellions in the West, he managed to reintegrate Asia Minor into his kingdom and began a campaign against the Parthians. The war limited the influence of the Parthians, and the empire reclaimed most of the lost territory. After signing a treaty with King Arsacs III, who forced Parthia into an alliance with him, Antiochus turned his gaze to the Far East. He opposed the Bactrian kingdom and defeated the king Euthydemus. However, he allowed him to retain his title and rule over Bactria. Further east, Antiochus confirmed his friendship with the Indian king Sofagasen, from whom he received war elephants.

8. Ups and downs

The Eastern campaign was successful. Antiochus founded a number of vassal states, fortified his borders, and received a total of one hundred and fifty war elephants. Now he was ready to return to the west. His western campaign resulted in Antiochus taking southern Syria from the Ptolemies and conquering parts of the Kingdom of Pergamon and Thrace. The Romans furiously demanded that he leave his newly conquered lands. However, Antiochus went even further, accepting the expulsion of the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca as his military adviser.

At this point, the Aetolian League turned to Antiochus for help in expelling Rome from Greece. Antiochus gladly agreed to help. After a costly war, Antiochus was forced to retreat and abandon almost the entire western part of the empire as Rome, Pergamum and Rhodes fought him on land and sea, pushing him to retreat even further east.

In 188 BC, Antiochus signed the Apamean Treaty. His lands now included only Syria, Mesopotamia and western Iran. Europe and Asia Minor will never be recaptured. Rome was now firmly the dominant power in the region, and the Seleucid empire would never return to where it was. The recession has officially begun. Antiochus was now both the one who restored the Empire to its former glory, and the one who condemned it to extinction and isolation.

9. End of the Seleucid Empire

After the Treaty of Apamea, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164) attacked the Ptolemies and had some success, but as he prepared to invade Egypt, the Romans asked him to retreat. Realizing that the war with Rome would not be as easy as he expected, Antiochus retreated.

On the way back, he entered Jerusalem and strengthened its ongoing Hellenization. The cult of Yahweh was banned. The local population soon revolted in 166 BC. BC, which led to the creation of an independent Jewish state, which lasted for a century, thereby further weakening the Seleucids.

The challengers were constantly at war with each other for land and power when the Seleucids became a minor kingdom imprisoned in Syria. The once powerful empire has now turned into a kingdom so insignificant that its neighbors did not even want to fight against it. The Seleucids were now a buffer state among the great powers.

In 83 BC, the Armenian king Tigran the Great invaded the kingdom of the Seleucids. However, in 69 BC. NS. the Romans defeated the Armenians, and the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII was allowed to rule over part of Syria. The pockets of civil war erupted again as a challenger named Philip II vied for the throne. Six years later, in 63 BC. BC, the Roman general Pompey liberated the Seleucid empire once and for all.

Continuing the topic, read also about how Vasily II ruled for sixty-five years and for which he ultimately received his nickname "The Bulgarian".