Secrets of the life of the pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov: The path to enlightenment and the struggle for survival

2024 Author: Richard Flannagan | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-15 23:55

Ivan Fedorov is usually called "the first Russian book printer". In fact, this is not entirely true. And before him, paper editions were printed in the country. The difference is that Fedorov was the first to indicate the source data and himself as the author. The same publications were anonymous. But this craft did not bring national recognition to Ivan.

In the style of Edgar Poe

It is worth starting a story about such an amazing and interesting person with the history of his surname. In the sixteenth century, there were no surnames as such in the Russian kingdom. Most often, a person indicated whose son he was. So Ivan was the son of Fyodor. Hence it came that he was Fedorov. The book printer himself indicated "Moskvitin" - from Moscow as an analogue of the modern surname. Over time, this postscript disappeared, giving way to Fedorov.

Ivan's exact date of birth is unknown. It is believed that he was born between 1510 and 1530 (usually an intermediate version is used - 1520). Well, at least Fedorov himself repeatedly referred to Moscow as "fatherland and family", otherwise his place of birth would have remained on the sidelines of history.

In general, his life was amazing. There was a place in it for mystery, drama, and crime. And the stern and gloomy sixteenth century, in which our hero lived, perfectly exaggerates the colors. Evgeny Grishkovets and Alexander Tsekalo have such a wonderful performance called Po Po. So about Fedorov, we can safely say that he lived in the style of the founder of the detective genre, Edgar Alan Poe.

So, secret number 1. There are no reliable facts about the childhood and youth of Ivan Fedorovich. Completely fictions and legends. It seems that he was educated in Krakow. But which one exactly is a mystery. At the same time, he was a very intelligent, advanced and enlightened person for his time. Fedorov was not a self-taught person who, with the help of birch, bast shoes and hay, "accidentally" invented a machine for printing books. No. He got acquainted with the "miracle machine", most likely, it was in Krakow. The printing house of Schweipolt (Svyatopolk) Fiole (the founder of Slavic printing himself died in 1525 or 1526) worked here, which was engaged in printing books in Cyrillic. Perhaps Fedorov was also acquainted with Francis Skaryna, thanks to whom educated people of the western part of the Russian kingdom got acquainted with books.

In 1552, it dawned on Ivan IV the Terrible - printed books are in use in Europe, which means that we should have them too. This wonderful impulse of the sovereign's soul was supported by Metropolitan Macarius. Perhaps he did not share the Tsar's enthusiasm, but who would dare to contradict Ivan the Terrible? But to want is one thing, and to realize is quite another. It is known that they tried to find masters of the book-printing business, but it did not work out. Therefore, out of habit, they sent messengers to the north, for a new, so to speak, Rurik. And soon the printer or bookbinder Hans Missingheim arrived from Denmark. The letters and the printing press were taken from the Polish lands.

Work has begun. How productive it turned out to be is difficult to judge. It seems like several (less than a dozen) anonymous books were published, and that was the end of it. Moreover, there is not even any information left about where the printing house was located. And at one fine moment the Dane at the combat post was replaced by Marusha Nefediev, who worked together with an engraver from Novgorod named Vasyuk Nekiforov. Most likely, young Ivan Fedorov also went to their students.

Fedorov's "finest hour" came later - in 1563, when Ivan the Terrible ordered to open the Printing House. The sovereign saw in him a prospect and an opportunity to raise the country's prestige in Europe, so he did not offend him with funding. Here Ivan Fedorovich began to work. Together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets, he worked on his book entitled "The Apostle" for about a year. And it was published in the spring of 1564. It is the "Apostle" that is considered the first accurately dated printed book in Russia. A year later, another edition came out - "Chasovnik". Both of these books were ecclesiastical.

Secret number 2. The advent of printed books caused a violent reaction. And not exactly what Fedorov had expected. The innovation was received with hostility … by the clergy. Ivan Fedorovich himself often spoke of attacks from the clergy, they say, they considered printed books "soulless." The strongest aggression came from, as you might guess, the scribal monks. Their work was slow and costly. In the face of the printing press, they saw a competitor offering a cheaper product. And his speed was not comparable to manual labor. According to one version, this led to a serious conflict.

The English diplomat Giles Fletcher also adhered to this version. He claimed that it was the scribes who were behind that fire. Fletcher believed that they simply could not honestly compete with the printed products of Ivan Fedorovich, therefore they ventured into arson. True, the Englishman did not see all these events. In his message, he relied not on some sources, but also on the memoirs of Fedorov himself. Therefore, it is impossible to state unequivocally that the fact of the arson occurred because of the conflict.

But the fact remains. There was an arson at the printing house, and there was also a conflict between the printer and the clergy. And one can only guess about the true reasons. What's more interesting: neither the engraving boards nor the fonts were damaged during the fire. Fedorov managed to save them. This means that at the time of the fire he was in the printing house or somewhere nearby.

There is another interesting version about the enmity between Ivan Fedorovich and the clergy. Academician, Soviet Slavic historian Mikhail Nikolaevich Tikhomirov believed that Fedorov had broken the rules. The first printer belonged to the white clergy, that is, to the number of clergymen who did not take a vow of celibacy (this lot was the choice of representatives of the black clergy). But there were still limitations. For example, after the death of his wife, a representative of the white clergy could not enter into a second marriage and had to go to a monastery. So Fedorov, having become a widower, did not take monastic vows.

After all these events, Ivan Fedorovich did not stay in Moscow. Soon he (his loyal "squire" Peter Mstislavets accompanied him on the journey) moved to the neighboring state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, namely, in the city of Zabludov.

Fight for survival

Secret number 3. Why the first printer chose this particular settlement is not known exactly. There is a version that Fedorov's move to Zabludov was an initiative of the sovereign himself. So, at least, the same academician Tikhomirov believed. The fact is that Ivan the Terrible delegated the printer to the West in order to promote Orthodoxy, whose positions were greatly weakened by Catholicism. But whether this is really so is unknown. Fedorov himself, as a reason for his departure, in the epilogue to the Lvov Apostle in 1574, spoke of the strained relations with officials and clergy. And because of this, he had to leave Moscow.

In a foreign land, the printer was greeted like a friend. Under the direct patronage of Hetman Chodkevich, a printing house appeared in Zabludovo, where Fedorov and Mstislavets began their work. In 1568 they published the "Teacher's Gospel", and in 1570 - "The Psalter with the Book of Hours." By the way, the last book became a textbook for teaching literacy. But the quiet creative life was short-lived. After the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania decided to unite into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having concluded the famous Union of Ljubljana, Chodkiewicz sharply changed his attitude towards Russian printers. He said that the printing house was not needed, and advised Fedorov and Mstislavets to comprehend the wisdom of agriculture.

Soon the printers moved to Lvov. Ivan Fedorovich hoped for local wealthy merchants, but his "project" did not impress them. They did not see the point in "papers". Only a few Orthodox priests and parishioners sympathized with Fedorov. But their help, of course, turned out to be meager. Somehow Ivan managed to print the second edition of the "Apostle" in 1574. In the afterword, the printer told about his unenviable fate and persecution. He argued that the culprits of all his troubles and misfortunes were the clergy, who believed that his books were heresy.

The book sold poorly. Therefore, Fedorov had to try to enter the markets of other cities. For example, Krakow. But this did not save the sad situation. And in 1579 the printing house and more than a hundred books were pledged to the usurer for four hundred Polish gold pieces. Ivan found himself on the edge of an economic abyss. His eldest son Ivan tried to sell books in Lvov, and Fedorov himself moved to Ostrog at the invitation of the local prince. Here the printer published the Ostrog Bible, which became the first complete Bible in the Church Slavonic language. Then he had to retire from book business.

Ivan decided to improve his financial situation at the expense of money from his invention - a multi-barrel mortar. With this project, he visited the Emperor Rudolf II in Vienna. In addition, Ivan Fedorovich worked in Krakow and, most likely, in Dresden. But, let's say, technical creativity was only a means of earning money. Fedorov dreamed of returning to his beloved work. But this was no longer destined to come true. At the end of 1583 he returned to Lvov, where he soon died. According to the official version, due to health problems. According to the unofficial, numerous competitors are involved in this.

The fate of his son Ivan was also unenviable. He followed in his father's footsteps and went bankrupt. The printing business in Lviv turned out to be unprofitable. Drukarevich (the printer's son) tried to save the situation, but ended up in a debt prison. There he severely undermined his health and died in 1583. True, the death of Drukarevich is also shrouded in mystery. There is a version that it was not illness that sent him to the next world, but competitors (monks-scribes), who decided to end the production of "heresy" once and for all. And how it really happened is unknown. So, here's another secret.